At the start of Art Nouveau, people in many countries found it difficult to identify the style. In Germany the name for this style came from an artistic journal named Die Jugend (1895-1900) that was published in Munich, the journal brought about the style more clearly and clean. 'Jugend' is translated as young and 'stil' - style, so as the name Young Style, which flourished in late 19th century and early 20th century. German cities were not all influenced by Jugendstil, the two most important centres, where the style dominated were Darmstadt and Munich.
The use of hard lines, rather than whiplash curvy noodle lines. The sinuous curves present in the style of Art Nouveau are also present in Jugendstil. Germans looked back to the classical times, combining the historical context with a romantic feel. However we may point out that Germany's style is much more harsh, they looked back into their own history and not the Egyptian warm, colourful and very adapted for political purposes. Historical German Folk Art became very inmportant for the development of Jugendstil, we can find many floral motifs and faming animals After Japan opened its doors for Europe, the ancient and modern Japanese prints filled the markets and people's homes. It not only influenced the individual artists, but also the styles whole, Art Nouveau and Jugendstil greatly fell under the influence of Japan. Artists that form part of the movement are Otto Wagner, Josef Hoffmann, Joseph Maria Olbrich, and Adolf Loos. One of the most renowned artist of the Jegendstil was Otto Eckmann. His most preferred animal to depict was the swan, the poster images and other patterns he created were very natural and sentimental. He was trying to preserve achievements of his ancestors in his art, which was both respecting and modernising all that was already present. References: Encyclopaedia of Art History. Jugendstil (c.1890s-1914). Available: http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/jugendstil.htm. Last accessed 16th Nov 2014. Jacopo Giola. Jugendstil, 1896-1914, The German Speaking Version of the Art Nouveau Style. Available: http://www.senses-artnouveau.com/biography.php?artist=JUG. Last accessed 16th Nov 2014. Austria Arrive and Revive. Jugendstil - An art movement embracing life. Available: http://www.austria.info/au/culture-arts/jugendstil-an-art-movement-embracing-life-1530287.html. Last accessed 16th Nov 2014. Art Nouveau is connected to Aesthetical movement, when Art was for Art's sake, and the Symbolist movement that promoted a meaning behind art. Thus the Arts and Crafts movement with its relations to nature and material, also lead to what is now called Art Nouveau or the New Art form.
Art Nouveau features many characteristics such as the whiplash curve, wobbly movements of lines and forms. We rarely see straight lines, inspiration is gathered from living organisms mainly insects and birds such as dragonflies, peacocks' and swans. Usually graceful animals that are valued and which look noble, beautiful and elegant. Materials are very often expensive and worthy, however with the production of steel, industrially wrought iron was used widely. Innovative exotic veneers, balconies, and tapered brackets in wrought iron were essential for Art Nouveau. Egyptian, Japanese and Celtic motifs can be found in patterns and objects, however they are not copied but rather modified to suit reality. Antonio Gaudi is most renowned Art Nouveau architect, who projected wholeheartedly Art Nouveau architecture. He not only made the aesthetical revolution in architectural world, but also used the spaces in innovative way in order to build a comfortable and appealing space for humans. His designs were functional and beautiful. Every piece of furniture, jewellery, products and posters, ceramics and sculpture were imbued with the New Style. Rene Lalique was the leading jewellery artist. He made a big use of the dragon fly form, however he did not create copies of insecets he incorporated female figure to add elegance to his work. His glassworks are all moving, they are, in a non-stop motion that lead our eyes by the curves of the works. New techniques and glass forms were found, like iridescent coating, or a velvety matte finish. The use of coloured materials was popularised, it can be seen in stoneware, terracotta panels, stained glass works and many others. Many artists viewed the female figure as the main inspiration, the long hair, the draping loose clothes and curvy forms paved the way for developing new ideas. One of the sculptors who used these inspirational concepts was F.R. Larche. He managed to create massively flowing and beautifully light to eye bronze sculptures that ultimately created a feeling of movement. Another two artists who are associated with Art Nouveau are Gustav Klimt and Aubrey Beardsley. Although Gustav Klimt was a painter his works are very poster like, featuring flatness of the roman and byzantine mosaics. The gilded background of Gustav's works reminds us of the godlike and heavens. The use of simple shapes like squares, is explained by the affiliation to the Vienna Secession group, which was more rigid and geometrical than Art Nouveau of central Europe. Aubrey Beardsley was a graphical artist, who was under the influence of Japanese prints. The artist created posters mostly in black ink, the female figure got an erotic appearance, which was also grotesque and decadent. Bringing up rear, we can hardly discuss the style of Art Nouveau in one post. However we can point out that it was a very decorative, rich in material, quality craftsmanship that was everywhere around the world. It was curvy and fantastic, as well as very expressive and impressive. Art Nouveau was erasing the past, by innovating the past. References: Aubry, F. About Art Nouveau. Available: http://www.artnouveau-net.eu/Network/ArtNouveau/AboutArtNouveau/tabid/133/language/en-GB/Default.aspx. Last accessed 15th Nov 2014. Bergdoll, B (1986 ). Encyclopedia of 20th-Century Architecture. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated. 21-23. Encyclopaedia of Art History. History of Art Nouveau . Available: http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/art-nouveau.htm#history. Last accessed 9th Nov 2014. Miller, J, 2006. Decorative Arts Style and Design from Classical to Contemporary. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited. p.188-235. Arts and Crafts movement followed after the Gothic Revival overlapping it. It is said that this movement is a reaction to mass-produced goods, that lacked quality, personality, identity, human warmth, thus even the process of producing them was dehumanizing. The movement flourished from 1850s to 1900, during these fifty years people rethought the idea of how products should function and look aesthetically, the virtue of a men's creation was given a special importance. One of the inspirations that lead to Arts and Crafts movement was John Ruskin, who worked in a style of Gothic Revival. Ruskin believed it is important to preserve old architectural monuments, his writings were making an importance on issues such as the environment, good craftsmanship, sustainability, the love for the hand craft. He also reminded people of the past values that artist had, the use of natural materials when creating a product, being true to it, moreover he pointed out that spirituality should not be forgotten. In other words, the whole existence of a man, his love and mind, his knowledge and skills are to be focused in one point - that is the product and the object of creation itself. Kenneth Clark, an English Art Historian made It clear that Ruskin believed that a product or a piece of art should be done with enjoyment, like so all the goodness of the product is passed to people who are experiencing it. William Morris (1834-1896), affiliated by the writings of John Ruskin founded the Arts and Crafts Movement, who promoted to produce beautiful things that had love and joy in them. That would be affordable by the working class, but would not lack quality, functional aspect and aesthetical characteristic. His aim was to create a sustainable product that would be in harmony with the economy, environment and would look pleasing. Morris established a company that produced textiles, patterns of which featured plants, flowers, birds and other natural motifs. Fine arts and applied arts were thought to be combined into a whole. The company was successful in producing good quality, beautiful textiles, however they were not affordable by the working class, here Morris did not fulfil all his ideas. To sum up, the Arts and Crafts movement was all about the spiritual harmony within the product and between its creator. It was not trying to wipe up individuality of a product, like it was done by many companies at that time. Products should have a soul, in order for them to have souls the designers should have sufficient conditions, skills and aims. If the product was created, considering the points mentioned above, it would bring joy and goodness to other people who use those products. References: Meister, M (2003). Architecture and the Arts and Crafts Movement in Boston. Harvard : UPNE. p 1-9. Taggart, J. M. The Arts and Crafts Movement. Available: http://www.artyfactory.com/art_appreciation/graphic_designers/william_morris.html. Last accessed 2nd Nov 2014. The Wilson. The Arts and Crafts Movement. Available: http://www.artsandcraftsmuseum.org.uk/Arts_and_Crafts_Movement/The_Arts_and_Crafts_Movement.aspx. Last accessed 3rd Nov 2014. Arts and Crafts Style . (2011). The Arts and Crafts Movement a Brief History and Description . Available: http://www.arts-and-crafts-style.com/arts-and-crafts-movement.html. Last accessed 3rd Nov 2014 . With the industrialization and the start of mass production the products were crying out for new designs, for something new and fresh, however despite developing technologically the society was still looking back to history. Artists grabbed their inspiration from different eras, like classical Greece or Renaissance Italy. America was one country that had its own style and distinctively new designs. This can be seen on the typewriters that were produced in America. This is explained by the absence of artistic past, since Indians used to be the only humans that lived on the continent, there was no connection to Europe while Renaissance or Rococo was developing. When English men, together with other European nationals, occupied the territory of America the fundament for art and design was plainer than in any other country. Europe, still being mentally "in the past" started a new movement which was then called the Gothic revival, which started back in the mid 18th century and lasted till very early 20th century. Gothic revival mainly dealt with architecture, the modern structures were built in a gothic style. A.W.N. Pugin was the main designer and architect during the Gothic Revival, his designs were more simplified and sophisticated, they were not as decorated as they were during the International Gothic period. The architecture is plainer, simpler and more block-like. Yet we can also note characteristics that are typical Gothic - the stained glass, label stops, pointed roofs, extremely high ceilings, the use of tympanums at the entrance doors, lancet windows and a gothic flower form for the central façade window. Gothic revival was not only dealing with structural sites, but it also considered spiritual meaning. John Ruskin, promoted good craftsmanship and truthfulness to material and ideas. Gothic Revival is not a mockery of modern styles, it is rather a call for comeback, to quality and fundaments of art and crafts. References: Davidson, C., The Gothic Revival in England. Available: http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/adw/gravely/revival.html. Last accessed 2nd Nov 2014. Gombrich, E.H., 1995. The Story of Art. 16th ed. London: Phaidon Press Limited. p 499-501. Kyles, S. Gothic Revival (1759-1900). Available: http://www.ontarioarchitecture.com/gothicrevival.html. Last accessed 2nd Nov 2014. Lang, S (1966). The Principles of the Gothic Revival in England. California : University of California Press. p 240-267. The Medieval art is closely connected to the western world, it covers quite a large volume of time and space, and also art styles. Often dealing with art, crafts and the artists themselves. Usually identification of the main periods and styles of the Medieval art is followed by some difficulties. Medieval art includes periods such as Early Christian art , Byzantine art, Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque art, and Gothic art. Some particular regions developed their own art that is distinctive, from the general perspectives that artists had, these include the Anglo-Saxon art or Norse art. However I should also note that the medival art is closely linked with religion, since the church used to be the main domain and also the main commissioner. As you can see here, the Medieval Norman architects revolutionised the way the roofs of the churches were built, so they started the way for a much 'lighter' appearance of architecture - it is sufficient just to have a number of firm arches crosswise between the pillars, the so called 'rib-vault'. The design is also much more simpler and sophisticated, it is seen that the architect is looking back to classical Greece, for the columns are filling up the space. We can also note the use of the arches, that were the invention of the ancient Romans. The arches were invented in order to have multiple floors above ground, or to have higher roofs. Arches made it possible for water to be transferred from high grounds to Rome. However contemporary users of the arch, such is the Gothic architects, modified the structure of the arch, it was made pointed to the top, symbolising the reach to the heavens. Yet not only the arch got the spiritual meaning, it also has physical importance - directing the weight down (unlike the roman arches that direct the weight to the left and right sides), like so the Gothic arch enables to build very high structures. Medieval art is all about religion, often enough when there are multiple figures on one painting, the most important figure was made larger. However movement and realism were not achieved by Medieval artists, before Umberto Bocioni invented the perspective, the background was either flat or in a wrong perspective. Medieval art is known best for stained glass, wood carving, piligrims and the aspect of teaching and preaching.. With the invention of Guttenberg's printing press in c. 1436, the approach to bookmaking had changed all over the world. Producing books was an art that required skills, since all the text was handwritten and all the illustrations were drawn by hand. Illuminated manuscripts were usually done by monks who lived in monasteries, the main subject was the bible. The images in such books were very bright, rich in colour and simple enough to understand. The pages were highly decorated with a variety of Celtic knots and geometrical motifs. Unfortunately before the medieval, artists were left with basic knowledge of art. After the fall of Rome and other events, many things were lost. The loss of Greek perfectioned statues, the loss of knowledge in Roman architecture, the loss of knowledge of concrete making. Certain areas of the world were isolated within their culture, having no information about the world farther than 20 kilometres because travelling farther was dangerous. In a few centuries humanity regained the lost knowledge. By the time of Renaissance, human beings began to be more important than religion, it is the time of rediscovery of classical Greece. Things such as architecture and sculpture, sciences and biology, mechanisms and philosophy were centres of art and lives. The Renaissance man excelled himself in various areas, moreover it was important that he would not remain studying one subject. Engineers, architects, and mathematicians grew in the eyes of the people, becoming prestigious professions among societies.
References: Gombrich, E.H., 1995. The Story of Art. 16th ed. London: Phaidon Press Limited. p185-219. Chilvers I., 2009. Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists. 4th ed. Oxford : Oxford University Press. p263. Newman S., 2014. Crafts in the Middle Ages. [online] The Finer Times. Available at: <http://www.thefinertimes.com/Middle-Ages/crafts-in-the-middle-ages.html> [Last updated 2014]. Nimocks, A., Medieval Religion, [online] Medieval Period. Available at: <http://www.medievalperiod.com/medievalreligion.html> [Last updated 2010]. Whenever we start to think of the definition of design, the thought is never limited to a few words such as this definition, which people normally give – a design is a plan or drawing created before the physical object is made, in order to show the appearance and functional aspect of the future object. Though the definition is clear enough, it does not tell us much about the way the design was carried out, thus it leaves out some important aspects of designing a product or any other object. For a more clearer idea, will transfer ourselves back to prehistoric times, in order to understand design from a historical perspective. During the prehistory humankind was quite primitive so as their tools and art. Despite this, we are to call the products and illustrations that these men made as a design. If the design was not on the paper, it must have been in their heads! To put it in other words - it all starts from an idea. However, if the prehistoric man had no need for something to cut, the idea of a cutting tool would not even exist. Religion also played a major role in art and design during prehistory. The Maltese temples are an example of such relationship, one of which is the Chalcolithic (c. 3700 BCE - 3000 BCE) Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum found in Paola. As proposed by archaeologists, the central chambers were used to carry out religious ceremonies, honouring the Gods and particularly the dead. This means that the burial places were designed out of need, a need that evoked due to religious practices. Ancient Greeks were ones that were also influenced by religion. Like Maltese men during the Temple period (4000 – 2500 BCE), the Greeks were building religious stone temples starting from the 6th century BCE. Their notable characteristic is the use of column rows or colonnades. In a few decades Greeks developed three main column orders - the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Doric order has the simplest form among other orders. Its capital is plain and circular, the shaft is fluted. Yet it has no base. These sort of columns look heavy and massive, thus short and quite wide. The Ionic column was also fluted, but it is noticeably higher. The base consisted of a number of graduated rings, the capital must have two volutes, which profile would remind us of a seashell, the volutes flanked the top of the shaft. Corinthian columns were the most decorative, with flutes and bases similar to those of the Ionic column. They had very detailed capitals carved with acanthus leafs. We should also note that these architectural orders developed through time and not at one go. Till this day, the architectural orders of ancient Greece were not forgotten. Even Malta looked back into the history to get inspiration. The use of Ionic columns in more modern times is seen on the Malta Law Courts building in Valletta, thus it is also seen to be used on Mosta Dome columns. The acanthus leaf motif also became an inspiration that lasted centuries till the Art Nouveau moment in the early 20th century. Till this point we may notice that design, even in its early stages, evolved due to a necessity. Be it the Neolithic period or the period of ancient Greeks design was a means to achieve the need of a society. Since society also holds in its culture and religion, the needs might not only be limited to everyday practices, but also spirituality is important. References: Miller, J., 2006. Decorative Arts Style and Design from Classical to Contemporary. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited. p.54. Milton, R., What is Flint? Museum of the stone Age , [online] (Last updated 26 August 2014).Available at: <http://www.stoneagetools.co.uk/what-is-flint.htm> Soanes C., Hawker S., (2005). Oxford English Dictionary . 4th ed. Oxford : Oxford University Press. p268-269. Trump, D.H., 2008. Malta Prehistory and Temples. 3rd ed. Malta: Midsea Books Ltd. p.130-131. |